Women In Ancient India essays

Ladies In Ancient India articles In antiquated India, ladies involved a significant situation with, in truth a prevalent situation to, man. Abstract proof recommends that lords and towns were obliterated in light of the fact that a solitary lady was wronged by the state. For instance, Elango Adigal's Sillapathigaram shows us Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas was singed in light of the fact that Pandyan Nedunchezhiyan erroneously murdered her better half on burglary charges. Valmiki's Ramayana instructs us that Ravana and his whole family was cleared out in light of the fact that he snatched Sita. Veda Vyasa's Mahabharatha instructs us that all the Kauravas were executed on the grounds that they mortified Draupadi out in the open. To ingrain such high beliefs in mankind, Indian precursors made a plenty of godesses who delighted in equivalent status with their spouses. The idea of Ardhanareeshwarar, where God is portrayed as half-man and half-lady, is a solid guide to help this contention. In numerous philosophical writings God is alluded to a Tat, which means It and that God is past sexual orientation. Furthermore, one would locate a practically identical Godess for every God. Further, we know beyond a shadow of a doubt that antiquated India was tolerant; ladies could have various spouses, widows could remarry, separate was allowed for incompatability or when irritated. In contemporary India, ladies possess a confusing status. From one perspective, there are godesses including in the Hindu pantheon and loved by men. On the other, a few spouses are scorched in light of the fact that they didn't bring enough share (the loathsome standardized and unlawful act of anticipating that the lady's parent should give an enormous handbag to the husband to be); ladies are misled by amazing nearby political figures and their family; a few ladies are kidnapped by rich young people with exemption; and there are believable accounts of female child murder in country India. Most likely, these cases are not the standard. All things considered, it is stunning to witness that they. Some may contend that these occurrences no chance contrast with the abusive behavior at home rate I ... <!

Strategies free essay sample

This is an explanation that can be approved and advocated by any student of history. The foundation of subjugation was built up to give a modest, sure, consistent and dependable wellspring of work. It was thusly settled to empower the grower to increase greatest benefit. Close to the completion of the eighteenth century Britain had experienced a time of industrialization and it turned out to be progressively clear that slave work presented to be all the more a weight than beneficial.The time of developments and machines took into consideration more prominent allotment of interests in Europe bringing about the absence of enthusiasm for sugar and servitude in the Caribbean. This achieved the ascent Of abolitionists who drove a progressive procedure that started in 1 772 and finished with their accomplishment in 1838. One such technique utilized by abolitionists was the development of social orders. One such Society was The Committee for the abrogation of the Slave Trade, made in 1787. This general public included dynamic individuals, for example, William Willpower, Thomas Clarion and Granville Sharp among others. We will compose a custom article test on Systems or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Another general public that was thudded was The Quakers, also called The Society of Friends. This general public included the first and most frank pundits of subjection. Further social orders included, the Clamp Sect and The New Tories, which were industrialists who accepted that servitude was an inefficient unrefined, wasteful arrangement of work which didn't fit with the modernization Of modest mechanical creation, for example, steam engines.The viability of these social orders become clear as it very well may be contended that they spoke to a bound together and gathered methods for upholding for the nullification of bondage as opposed to a lone and perhaps, not all that viable teeth of protection from the arrangement of subjection. To additionally appreciate the adequacy of these social orders, one may strike an examination between the British livelihoods of huge, sorted out social orders rather than the individual French supporters for the cancelation of slavery.Though it very we ll may be contended that the acclaimed French helpful, Victor Schoolteacher, contributed tremendously to the annulment of subjugation in the French provinces, it is contended by most, that his activities turns out to be less viable than the bound together methods for battle utilized by British social orders. Another methodology came as media. Abolitionists made a swapper, The Anti-Slavery Reporter in 1825. The paper was utilized to battle enthusiastically for the abrogation Of slavery.Information as articles was coursed to depict the obtuse treatment of the slaves on the sugar ranch and center section, setting pressure on the legislature. Also they utilized handouts, leaflets, verse and outlines to additionally portray the state of slaves. This took into consideration abolitionists to accomplish both a mindfulness, and compassion from general society on the matter of Slavery. Subsequent to increasing open compassion they had the option to convince the majority not to curves sugar originating from the islands. This was viewed as an approach to undermine the sugar industry.In expansion the adequacy of such method is found in the way that crusading for the nullification of subjection through papers, flyers, and so forth , prevailing in the open squeezing the legislature by unmistakably yelling their grumblings and want for the finish of servitude. They campaigned together their voices requesting a change for new conditions: the end the bondage. Molecules C. Holt, in The Problem of Freedom, expounds: In 1788, around a hundred request bearing more than Sixty thousand names improved abrogation of the slave exchange; by 1 833 the abolitionists had overflowed parliament with 5,000 petitions supported by right around 1. Million individuals requesting the annulment of subjugation. (peg. 27) Members of the abolitionist social orders were noted for taking part in legitimate fights, discussions and battles in the parliaments, the House of Commons and open gatherings. One outstanding discussion upholding the finish of the arrangement of subjugation was a financial one which contended that with the presentation and extension of beet sugar in Europe sugar and bondage was not, at this point a stickiest. Beet sugar end up being progressively beneficial. What's more there was a lower cost of transportation.They, also, campaigned that paid work end up being more productive than slave work, as it included a high death rate and in this way end up being unrewarding. Abolitionists took part in petitions gathering and spreading data of the grower merciless treatment of the slaves both on the estates and the center section. They got their data by getting firsthand records from mariners and previous slaves at British ports through meetings. One such abolitionist who did this was the specialist Thomas Clarion.Thomas Clarion committed as long as he can remember to the abrogation of subjection. He was instrumental in bringing out open compassion, going around, advancing the reason and assembling confirmations of the revulsions of servitude. He had the option to acquire types of gear utilized on slave ships, for example, iron binds, leg-shackles, thumbscrews, marking irons and instruments used to compel open the jaws of the slave. These types of gear were shown at open gatherings and engraved in flyers. Executive William Pit the Younger, and as recently expressed, WilliamWillpower, were likewise two abolitionists of significance. Self discipline had performed a lot of responsibilities in supporting for the nullification of bondage however when he developed sick abruptly, Pit was answerable for proposing the goals as far as possible of servitude for his sake. In this manner albeit a few pundits, for instance, Biographer William Hogue, considers Pit to not have been that successful in adding to the annulment procedure, others see his significance in the way that he was a huge supporter to William Wildernesss upholding for the abrogation slavery.Pit had proposed that Willpower become the reliantly pioneer of the cancelation development and the two men worked in joint effort on battling for the nullification of servitude. As recently expressed, the procedure was a steady one. As such there apparently was a progression of various laws passed which in the long run prompted the finish of bondage. The initial step was found in the nullification of the slave exchange, in 1807. Following this was, Registry Bill, which was passed in 181 6 directing that pilgrim governing bodies register all slaves, as it was presumed that a few settlements were bringing in slaves illicitly. The following stage was seen with the execution of the Amelioration Proposal, 1823. An evaluation of this proposition could be viewed as a positive pointer Of the advancement that cancelation was close so that even West India intrigue got engaged with the slow procedure. The last planned to defer the procedure while the Abolitionists trusted that it would prompt an improvement in the uncaring, ruined and eventually troublesome existences of the subjugated. In 1834, the apprenticeship framework was utilized to give a smooth progress into liberation for the slaves, which at long last occurred in the year 1838.

Fight Fire With Fire

Fight Fire With Fire I received the following question on tumblr the other day: This is a really good question, because it forced me to think and deeply consider why I found MIT so hardand exactly what it is that causes people to buckle under the pressure. I’ve adapted the response I created for tumblr to this post, which I hope will shed some light on the teaching and learning philosophy of MIT, and exactly what makes it this burning furnace that, through a lot of heat and pressure, turns all of its students into steel (see last weeks post for even more fire metaphors!). Recently, this video made by the MIT media lab (which includes Chris Peterson and many others) called “How MIT Learns” was posted to the admissions homepage. I’d encourage you all to watch it if you’re interestedit’s pretty cool, and also touches on a lot of the general reasons as to why MIT is both so difficult and very effective. Then, below, you can read my more specific take on the matter. The reason MIT is so hard is because you are not just given knowledgeâ€"you have to earn it. I’m going to guess that at your high schoolâ€"just as in many high schoolsâ€"the days you spend in class might go something like this: 1. Introduce a specific concept (let’s use integrals as an example). Your teacher talks about integrals for a little bit, maybe where they came from and gives some background on the theory behind them. 2. Work on Examples. Your teacher might do some simple integral problems on the board a couple times, and one of these times they might write a problem and have you solve it in class. 3. Homework. The homework you receive on integrals starts out easy and gradually becomes harder. Generally speaking, the homework will line up with what is taught in class (at least, it should). 4. Tests. The tests might be a bit harder than the homework, but often they still line up pretty well. If you study, there are not usually many surprises. Most people get B’s. Some get A’s. Sometimes a lot get A’s. Some get C’sâ€"and the C people often drop down a class if it happens consistently. In this method, even if your teacher is terrible and you don’t understand the homework, the pace is forced to be slow enough that you can still manage, or work with friends and piece together your bits of knowledge. There should be a reasonably direct correlation between effort and grades. Also, for most high school subjects there’s a lot of information available on the internet, whereas in college, sometimes what we’re studying is basically hot off the academic presses, and so you can’t find much outside information to help you. Of course high school can still be very hardâ€"I thought it was hard. It’s made even more challenging when you’re involved in a lot of outside activities, or you take a lot of AP classes. But still, from the standpoint of an individual class, the material is designed to be doableand this is by no means a bad thing. Its important to train people in how to acquire knowledge, which is the purpose of high school. In fact, (a brief tangent) I’ve always disliked it when college/high school/middle school professors and teachers said things like “WELL, I know your high/middle/elementary school teachers did not teach you blah blah blah and that whole time of your life was basically a waste of time and I’m going to actually teach you things now/get you closer to the “real world”/etc./etc.” This mentality is terrible. Everyone needs different types of education at different levels. I especially never understood why public school teachers said things like that. Being teachers themselves, they should understand the difficulty of their own jobs. To say phrases like that hugely disrespects the teachers that prepared the students before they got into that current teacher’s classrooms. I lose a little respect for teachers or professors who do that. In contrast to high school, here is how MIT teaches, a method many people call “the fire hose”: (^how I feel on the daily) 1. Introduce a General Concept. If you’re supposed to be learning integrals, an MIT professor might start off with the foundation of calculus and talking about summations. In my experience, a lot of the professors really like to tell “stories”, such as “let’s say we have a moving car, and we don’t know how far it’s traveled, but we know it’s velocity…..” and you don’t really know where they are going with this until they explain that the integral of velocity is distance. I like this because it gets you excited. Until you have to do homework. 2. Go over one example. Expectations are higher at MIT. You are expected to do a lot on your own. If you want more examples, you have to read them on your own time. In class, we might do one or two examples, and often the professor will skip a lot of the intermediate steps. Everyone hates the phrase “and the rest is just algebra” or “…and then I’m sure you guys can do the algebra, so in the end the answer is 5?. Sometimes “just algebra” takes me an hour. 3. Collaborate on homework. MIT has one very important philosophy: no competition. What I mean is, if, hypothetically speaking, everyone in a class got an A, then everyone would get an A. There is never a curve or weird grade cutoff thing that works against you, it can only ever work for you. This means everyone is encouraged to work with and help each other all the time. This is important, because if you tried to do everything yourself here, you would be absolutely miserable. My biggest regret this semester is not working with other people on our math homeworkâ€"I really should have done that more. The homework at MIT has a much greater gap with what was taught in class. There might be a few “confidence boosting” problems that are short, and similar to in-class examples, but most of them are completely different. You might have done a velocity/distance integral problem in class, and then all of a sudden all your homework problems are about heat dissipation. The math is the sameâ€"but I’m sure you know how much more confusing things can be when taken out of context. When the math wasn’t all that clear in the first place, it’s exponentially more confusing. You are expected to make the connection between the general concept and the specific problem on your own. The professor does not reveal this connection to you. You MUST ASK FOR HELP from somewhereâ€"TAs, office hours, the professor, your friends. The average set of homework problems here can take anywhere between 4-8 hours, depending on what you yourself are better/worse at (math takes me forever, but physics is usual ly ok). In high school, I think my homework usually took two hours, except for AP Physics C (which was the most college-like high school class I ever took, take it!!). That 4-8 hours is time spent even when you are working with other people. If there’s something you really don’t understand and you are stubbornly working all by yourself, you can work on it for a whole day and end up with not much more than a pool of tears and eraser shavings (definitely have done this a couple times). We need each other to survive at MIT. 4. Exams. ……oh man. On my first math exam in college ever, I failed. I’d never actually failed an exam before. Then my TA was like, “oh, but it was only by a few points” and I was like HOW ARE YOU SO CALM. I was not the number one kid in high school, but here I immediately began to feel like I was at the very bottom, even though I wasn’t. The distribution is different. I think most people get B’s in the end in most classes, but C’s are much more common, and sometimes more the norm in other classes. Getting an A is very hard in most classes. C people are not encouraged to dropâ€"they are considered doing well enough, and if they want to do a little better, they talk to their professors and TAs. This distribution is difficult to get used to. While I’ve talked a lot about the difference between MIT and high school, I think the significantly lower grade distribution is what makes MIT different from other colleges. Some people think, why not just move all the averages up so more people can get B’s and A’s? It might help all the students get better jobs or into better grad schools. The reason is that MIT is designed to keep you uncomfortable. Making the grade distribution so different from other places and especially from high school makes all the students here very uncomfortablemany of us were straight-A types, after all (actually, the fact that I was not a straight-A student helped me adjust a lot). We don’t grow when we are comfortable, because our instincts tell us to stay in our comfort zone. MIT tries its best to make sure there is no comfort zoneâ€"which, even with all this rigor, is still hard to achieve because of some of the geniuses that come here. In the end, your job will really not depend on your GPA. MIT has made sure that everyone knows it does not work on the same grading scale as other places. The only time this becomes a problem is with scholarshipsâ€"but don’t ever let that keep you from taking risks. I myself have a GPA-dependent scholarship, but I didn’t drop any of my classes, because I know that I could appeal to either MIT (for more financial aid) or to my scholarship provider, and they would actually understand, because it really is that hard. In general, I think the high school philosophy is to teach knowledgeâ€"which makes a lot of sense and is very appropriate for high school.  Like I said, I hate it when people discount our previous experiences and education. You need a good knowledge foundation, and that will definitely help you at any college you go to, including MIT. Difficult high schools are difficult because they teach a lot of knowledge in a short time. But MIT’s philosophy is to teach learning. I didn’t understand this at first. I couldn’t understand how we could pay so much tuition to go to classes where professors didn’t teach us anything (well, it felt that way at the time). You have to really learn concepts fully, and you have to reach an understanding of them that only comes from working with the concept in many different contexts on your own. Sometimes, this is not possible for some people in some classesâ€"to be perfectly honest, I still have no idea what’s going on in math. In that case, if you work hard, you can still at least pass the class (get a C) even if you don’t fully understand everything (which is what I’m doing in math ^^”). In other words, if you really, actually learn things at MIT, you can get a B (maybe an A), and if you don’t but you work really hard, you can get a C. You also have multiple classes that are all this level of difficulty. This is another way that I think MIT might be different from other schools. The 4-8 hour problem set time I mentioned is for just one class. You’ll have at least four, and hopefully, you’ll also have, you know, a lifefriends, clubs, music, artall these other things that you like doing but which can also eat your time. On top of all this, despite our “no competition” policy, when it seems like everyone around you is doing just fine, it’s demotivating (although trust me, they’re actually not perfect) another difficulty particular to MIT. This feeling can be more crippling than any of the actual work you have to do, and makes it difficult not to descend into listlessness or panic. Random external problems (family, social drama, getting sick, etc.) take a greater toll on your time, your life, and your grades than they would in high school. I actually get more sleep in college than I did in high schoolâ€"but I also feel like I need sleep more. I cannot survive the extremely dense flood of informationâ€"the fire hoseâ€"that is fired at me in a single day with less than four hours of sleep. I just can’t. So that’s why MIT is so hard. Success is not getting an A here. Success is not even getting a C here. Success is maintaining your mental and emotional stability in the face of this fire hose. You cannot give up. You cannot fall away. No matter how badly you do, you cannot let academics define who you are. You have to keep working, and keep working really hard, no matter how pointless it seems at times. Success here is finding or creating a group of people that support each otherâ€"giving and receiving both academic and emotional/mental support. Don’t ever close yourself off from these people. Success is knowing that it’s okay to feel upsetâ€"but you cannot let being upset consume you. Success here is still making time for the things that make you happy, and separating yourself from your disappointments. Success is failingâ€"and being able to move on. If you are admitted to MIT, it’s because they know that you have fire. The educational system seems to put every effort into extinguishing that fire, and that often feels awful. But actually, you just become really, really good at burning. (if were going to continue with this metaphor thing then MIT students must be like Valyrian steel!) (this gif is from Game of Thrones) (is anyone currently watching season 5? I still need to catch up.)

A Huge Impact of Alexander the Great - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 610 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/04/16 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Alexander The Great Essay Did you like this example? Alexander the Great was born on July 20th, 356 B.C., in Pella, Macedonia. His dad was King Philip II, and his mother Olympias, who was one of Philips eight wives. It was said and encouraged then, that he was the child of something holy. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Huge Impact of Alexander the Great" essay for you Create order That everything he would do would be impactful and contain great power. That he was from the gods. His father would be one of the most influential people in his life, making sure that his education was prioritized. That meant being tutored by the infamous Aristotle. Just because his father was gone conquering land and halting revolts, doesnt mean he was absent in making sure his son had the tools he needed to succeed. Having access to such high education gave him knowledge that was influenced with logic, culture, philosophy, music, and more. What Aristotle gave him were lessons he would later use to help him conquer, and take control over empires, all while preserving the unique cultures along the way. Sometime in 336, Alexanders father was assassinated. Alexander was now head of operations. He quickly took control and killed the alleged murderer of his father, and managed to kill major groups that hated him, and his rivals. Traveling south and a few acts of heroism later, he was made generalissimo for the future invasive attack on Asia that he created. He continued to travel and conquer during his reign and was said to be invincible. He forced into the Shipka Pass, destroyed Triballi, made way through the Danube to then separate into the Getae. Continued onward to crush the coalition of Illyrians who made way into his territory. Whilst all of that was happening, gossip spread around that he had died, which set off a revolt and people wanted a new ruler. He hiked 240 miles for 14 days, from modern day Albania, to Thebes. They refused to give up, so he tore their city to the ground, leaving just temples. Six thousand were murdered and the people who lived were sold into slavery. Peo ple were shocked, afraid, and impressed with his perseverance, vigor, and violent actions. Although his opponents left him no choice but to be violent, its rightfully so that he is one of the greatest military leaders of all time. He ruled Macedonia, was a leader of Greece, and conquered the Persian Empire and more. His killings were a necessary means for him to grow his power, but he was tasteful in regards to his respects. He understood the effort needed to be a ruler and recognized that same vigor and love of people in other rulers, including his opponents. Taking the right actions in their burials, making sure the correct cultural traditions and burials were happening, and respecting the loved ones and the followers of those he killed were just some ways he showed his nobility, honor, and thoughtfulness through actions. His ruling was lead through the love of his and others culture, while doing what was needed to. He demonstrated how to be one of the most incredibly successful rulers, while still maintaining dignity, morals, and the respect of his peers and people. After his death, temples and statues were built in his honor. Many of these sites held events to honor Alexanders accomplishments. Alexander was very astute and embraced and integrated his knowledge and techniques from many cultures including; the Egyptians, Greeks, Persian, and Indians and he made them into one. This made his knowledge broader and more encompassing than others. Alexanders legacy was considered far-reaching and profound. Responsible for the destruction of the Persian Empire and more importantly, his conquests led to the spread of Greek culture (Hellenism) across his empire.

Narrative Essay On Snorkeling - 704 Words

Snorkeling Always challenge yourself. Sometimes, when something goes wrong, or is hard at first, thats just because youre doing it wrong. This is a story about my time at the beach in Maui, Hawaii. This story starts with a trip to Costco. Costco. The place where you can get almost anything. Is it a surprise they have one in Hawaii? My brother, my parents and I went to Costco to purchase snorkel gear. Luckily for us the gear was just on the in the front, almost falling off the shelve. We quickly grabbed four pairs and headed to the hotel. As soon as we got there we threw on our bathing suits and painfully, slowly, got on my snorkel gear. The flippers were uncomfortable and I didnt like only breathing through my mouth. I quickly got in,†¦show more content†¦I froze not moving a muscle. It was apparently unaware pair of eyes upon it. Excitedly I pointed to it and raised my head above the water. â€Å"Hey dad† I called. Suddenly I gasped and choked. Seawater filled my mouth. It was salty and horrible, and seeped into my mouth, even when I finally took the mask off to breathe.I quickly put the mask back on, but it didnt help. I felt sick. As we swam back I realized that as long as I dont tip my head back no seawater came into my mouth. I started to calm down and finally breathe. I relaxed, finally. I quickly stopped moving and gestured I wanted to stay here and just watch my surroundings as the waves gently rocked me. I soaked up all the beauty of my part of the coral reef. As it turns out, the place where we had stopped was teaming fish. I went underwater to get a closer look at them. I started excitedly pointing out every Friday and fish that I saw and almost anything that moved. Then I was caught completely unprepared, A shoal of fish rose up from the beneath me for and, second time the day, I froze. the fish were almost an inch from my hand. I thought about reaching out to touch them, then thought better of it. There were so many fish and if you look past them so many different types of coral. Then a shark came up and ate them! just kidding, that never happened. Sorry now continuing. I started to feel horrible, probably from the seawater intake and and again signaled to go back. This

The Role of a Guardian Free Essays

Guardianship is a legal relationship between a competent adult and a person over the age of 18 and whose disability causes them to make irrational decisions. The incompetent person is called the ward. The disability may he caused by mental illness, developmental disability, accident, or other causes. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of a Guardian or any similar topic only for you Order Now A developmental disability or mental illness is not, alone by itself enough reason to call someone incompetent. Even advanced stages of alcoholism is reason enough to find a guardian or some other kind of court intervention in that persons life. Competency has to do with a person’s ability to make an ‘informed decision’, or, with the risk of arm that they may experience due to their inability to provide for themselves or control their business. The court has the right to make the guardian last indefinitely. The only way to end it is to have the court end it. The only way that they do that is where the child reaches the age of majority and then they don’t need a guardian or if the incapacitated person dies. The incapacitated person could also get better and then they wouldn’t need a guardian any more In the relationship between the guardian and the ward, the guardian is given the right to make decisions on behalf of the person with a disability. When a guardian is appointed, the ourt gives the guardian the authority to exercise certain legal rights in the wards best interest. The courts, when giving rights to a guardian, take them away from the ward. Because guardianship involves such a serious deprivation of rights and dignity, the law requires that guardianship be executed only when other, less restrictive alternatives have proven not to work. If less restrictive forms of protection are not enough to protect a person from the risk of harm, then guardianship should be sought on behalf of the incapacitated person. A guardian’s authority is limited to those areas of decision making for which there is vidence to indicate that a person is incapacitated. Some incapacitated people are able to make responsible decisions in some, but not all, areas of their lives. In these situations guardianship may be limited by the court to only those areas in which the incapacitated person is unable to make responsible decisions. Some individuals require a guardian who has responsibility for both the person and the estate. The primary responsibility of the guardian with duties pertaining to the ward is to provide consent for issues such as medical treatment and living situation. A uardian of the estate is responsible for managing some or all of the property and/or income of There are three different kinds of guardianship. The first kind is the most common type and that is plenary guardianship. Plenary guardianship or complete guardianship is when the ward has very little capacity and the guardian makes all the important decisions. People found to be totally without capacity or understanding to make personal decisions or manage financial affairs, are given plenary guardians. In determining a need for person guardianship, two prominent issues are medical decision making and residential placement. If a person is unable to give informed medical consent or is unable to live independently in an appropriate residence, person guardianship should be Estate guardianship is necessary where a person, due to some disability, cannot manage financial affairs. However, courts rarely appoint plenary estate guardians where estate assets are minimal. Bill paying assistance and money management assistance programs should also be considered before you seek an estate guardian. Small estate amounts can be collected and disbursed, without resort to estate administration. Some courts encourage the use of small estate ffidavits and court-supervised deposits of wards’ funds as alternatives to estate guardianship. However, as stated before, many judges rarely appoint estate guardians in small or minimal Perhaps the least understood and least used form of guardianship applies where a person lacks some, but not all of the capacity to make personal decisions or handle an estate, the appointment of a limited guardian is not a finding of legal incompetence. Limited guardianship is intended to be less severe and more individualized than plenary guardianship. Although guardianship is supposed to be used only to the extent necessary by a person’s ctual mental, physical and social limitations, courts tend to create plenary guardianship rather than limited guardianship, even where limited guardianship may arguably be more appropriate. One reason for the bias toward plenary guardianship is that the creation of an appropriate limited guardianship is complicated when compared to plenary guardianship. A physician must clearly state between things a person can and cannot do and must clearly describe these things to the court. The court must then determine which of these rights will be taken from the person with disability, considering the consequences for each. The limited guardianship must be understandable to the guardian, ward and other parties that may depend on the document. Not all guardianship practitioners, medical practitioners and courts are able to make an appropriate, The following are some better alternatives, which should be considered before pursuing guardianship. Representative or Protective Payee is a person who is appointed to manage Social Security, Veterans’ Administration, Retirement, Welfare Assistance or other state or Federal benefits or entitlement program payments on behalf of an individual. Conservatorship is a oluntary proceeding in which a person (the conservatee) asks the Court to appoint a specific individual (the conservator) to manage his or her estate. The court must find the ward incapable of managing his or her financial affairs, but capable of making the decision to have a conservator appointed to do so these actions. Power of Attorney is a contract between two individuals where one party gives to the other the authority to make any number of decisions (e. g. medical, placement, financial) on his or her behalf. The person giving the power of attorney must be mentally competent to enter into the contract as learned in this class. If the contract is made and the six essential elements of a contract are met, the power of attorney remains in effect even if the principal becomes mentally incapacitated. Here is a case where some kind of guardianship or another court related act would have to take place. A person with Alzheimer’s disease often loses all short-term memory and gradually loses even long-term memory. That person cannot make responsible decisions such as remembering to take medication or remembering to pay bills. If that person did not execute a power of attorney while he or she still had the legal capacity to do so, the only way for a family ember to take over bill payments or seek medical assistance for the disabled person is to execute a guardianship through court intervention. In conclusion there are very many things you have to consider before you try to become a legal guardian. You must first think of what is in the best interests of the ward. Then, if you can, you should try to find some better, less restricting options, for him or her. Being a guardian to a child or a mentally disabled person is a big responsibility and should not be taken lightly. There are businesses and law firms, which can help you, research and become a guardian. How to cite The Role of a Guardian, Essay examples

Unemployment and People free essay sample

Since the dawn of human history, individual needs have been prioritized by every human being. These individual needs can be met by proper sources of employment. After the transformation of the world from a feudal to an industrial society, the needs of an individual have risen sharply, giving due importance to finance. In Pakistan, due to gigantic rise in population, individual finances have been disturbed a lot. This is because of rising unemployment. According to Samuelson: â€Å"Unemployment occurs if there are qualified workers who would be willing to work at prevailing wages but cannot find jobs. Unemployment Situation in Pakistan: According to Economic Survey of 2010-11, population of Pakistan is 177. 1 million. Total labor force is about 54. 92 million out of which 51. 87 million is employed and remaining 3. 05 million is unemployed. Rate of male unemployment is 5. 6 % and female unemployment is Causes of Unemployment Every year many new graduates are added into the labor forc e but few of them get very good jobs; some others get a reasonable one but many keep on looking for jobs for a long time. We will write a custom essay sample on Unemployment and People or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There can be a number of reasons for young men to be unemployed. A lack of realistic approach is one of the reasons of being unemployed. Youth have their dreams and some are ambitious too. Their ambitious nature leads them to dream about very unrealistic goals in life. Degree holder youth usually aspire for a white collar job in a big company such as in a multinational. Their objective is to get a high salary. But when they don’t get such a job they keep on waiting for one and hence not only waste their time but also the opportunities to get some other low salary jobs. Illiteracy Literacy Illiteracy and literacy both are the causes of unemployment in Pakistan. Due to illiteracy people are not able to work and they remain unemployed. On the other hand number of educated is increasing annually but government is unable to create employment opportunities e. g. , students of B. Com. are increasing at very fast speed but they cannot find jobs and admissions for higher education. Rate of illiteracy in Pakistan is 42. 3 %. As in the backward areas of country, the education facilities are not available. Only 2. 7% of total GDP of the country is spent on Education. Even though there are more than 8000 ghost schools in Sindh province, which are not working but are under the control of local landlords. Government schools are unable to provide quality education due to imperfect syllabus, improper education policies, and inefficient teachers. That’s why the students are unable to build their strong base through education. Seasonal Variation There is seasonal unemployment in Pakistan. Seasonal unemployment exists especially in industrial sectors. For example, sugar industries and ice factories create seasonal unemployment. People only work for certain part of the year and mostly remain unemployed for remaining part of the year. Unskilled labor Most of the businessmen in Pakistan are illiterate, ill-trained and unskilled. They think that if they employ more persons they will have to pay more and their profit will decline. These unskilled businessmen cause nepotism and favoritism. It means selection according to relation not according to ability. Here deserving candidates do not get jobs and remain unemployed or under employed. High Population Growth Rate The population of Pakistan is increasing at a rate of 2. 1 %. Due to this high rate about two million people enter into the labor market each year. Such huge labor force cannot be provided jobs due to backward economic condition. People are so poor and illiterate that they cannot differentiate between wright and wrong. Money is there problem. They cannot think of sending their children to school at proper age. People have no regrets on having more children. People are not motivated and are deprived of basic necessities so they cannot think beyond that. High Age of Retirement The higher age of retirement in government sector has closed the employment opportunities for the young, literate and trained person. In Pakistan retirement age is 60 years. Lack of Technical and Professional Education Like the absence of other educational services, there are very few and inefficient institutes for professional training in the country, especially in the rural areas. It is the fact that most of the youth are not properly guided and motivated to choose their proper future career. The students choose the career which does not befit their personality and nature. Thus leading to failure in professional life and they cannot find suitable jobs and if they find one, they cannot deal with the challenges of the job. Technical, professional and vocational institutions are limited in number.

Patricia Hearst essays

Patricia Hearst essays Born into a wealthy and well- known family Patricia Hearst had luxuries that many kids never grow up with. She lived in a mansion and grew up in catholic schools. Her Parents Randolph and Catherine Hearst were strict with their five daughters. As Patty grew up she became more distant from her parents and decided to go to a public high school. There is where she met Steven Weed; he was a young teacher who had just graduated from Princeton University. He became her math tutor, but not long after their relationship turned intimate. Although she was only 17 and he was 23, they continued with their secret relationship. ( internet ) Their relationship continued into college where she went to Menlo College. Patty left to Europe for a summer and, shortly after her return she got engaged to Weed. Her parents did not approve of her choice but there was nothing they can do to stop her. She moved in with Weed at an apartment in Berkeley, California. On February 4, 1974, the doorbell rang at their apartment. Weed went to open the door. There he saw a nervous women who claimed to have backed her car into another car in the driveway, and needed to use their phone. He had no time to answer before two armed men pushed their way in the door. ( Alexander 5) Weed was left on the floor severely beaten. The abductors dragged Patricia out the apartment and forced her into the trunk of their car. Her screams attracted the attention of her neighbors but they were too scared to do anything. She rode in the trunk for a few minutes and then was switched to the floor of a white station wagon a few blocks away. From there she was taken to the hide out witch turned out to be her prison. Her abductors turned out to be the Symbionese Liberation Army, who was led by ex-convict Donald Defreeze, known as Cinque Mtume. This group took responsibility for the assassination of Marcus Foster, an Oakland school superintendent. Joe Ramiro and Russell L...

How To Make Friends Influence People at Work

How To Make Friends Influence People at Work It’s important to have friends and to be the kind of person people want to be friends with. It’s arguably even more important to make friends among your coworkers. First of all, work is a great place to make adult friends after college. And it’s also a great way to become a part of the company culture. You might even start to look forward to going to work every day. Here are 10  tips on how to make more friends and influence people in the workplace and in life:1. Use NamesSaying people’s names is easy, and if you work it into your normal speaking patters, it will  really make an impact. People love hearing their own names. It’s like you’re personalizing generic small talk with every use.2. Don’t be MercenaryDon’t make friends with everyone, and don’t make friends with people because you want to get something out of them. Ulterior motives won’t serve you in the long run. Put your effort and energy into people yo u would want to socialize with outside of work. And don’t go too gung-ho too fast or you’ll scare potential buddies off with your over exuberance.3. Be YourselfYou don’t want to get into a situation where you’re afraid to befriend certain colleagues on certain social media platforms. Keep it consistent. Have a policy and stick with it. The easiest thing? Just be yourself. At the office, at home, and across your social media profiles. Don’t say anything online you wouldn’t be comfortable having all of your friends see.4. Help PeopleNobody likes the person in the office who refuses to help her coworker. Try to say yes and help people as often as you can without sacrificing too much of your own work or time. It’s a great way to gain and express loyalty.5. Don’t be ObnoxiousDon’t be the loud one everyone cranes their necks out of their cubicles to glare at. Don’t bring in stinky lunches and microwave their stench thro ughout the office. Don’t talk over people or shut down their ideas without listening. In short, don’t be a jerk. This simple strategy will actually make the rest surprisingly easy.6. ParticipateIf a group of your coworkers is standing around making small talk, join in! If there’s a birthday card in circulation or a joint gift to go in on, get involved! Just as you wouldn’t want to turn down opportunities to build your professional network, don’t turn down opportunities to make friends. Happy hour? Yes please.7. Don’t be NegativeCursing and complaining can be alienating at best, and a huge turn off at worst. Try to stay composed and positive. Be the person people look to when they need a dose of the bright side, not someone people avoid when they’re not feeling up to snuff.8. Set BoundariesMaking friends with your coworkers does not mean inviting them to be your bosom buddies right away. Don’t feel the need to invite people to y our home or family functions too soon. That can wait until you’ve developed a true intimacy. Keep it light and social at first.9. Resolve ConflictsDon’t let arguments or resentments simmer and fester underneath your relationships. Remember, you can’t just leave your quibbles at home- these friends are people you also have to work with. Be super forthright in resolving conflicts as they come up, before they become major issues that might get in the way of work or your relationship.10. Be InclusiveDon’t just cherry pick the people you like most. Sure it’s okay to be closer to the people with whom you have most in common- you don’t have to be everyone’s friend to the same degree. But don’t be the jerk that invites everyone except one or a few people out for drinks on a Friday night. Be inclusive. Choose kindness. Otherwise you might lose friends rather than make more of them.

How Do We Use Stories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

How Do We Use Stories - Essay Example Stories are also powerful. They enchant, delight, recall, touch, teach, motivate, inspire and challenge us. They help us understand certain things by creating pictures in our minds. Our lives revolve around stories, and as such, they move us and make us feel alive. Our appetite for stories is a demonstration of our insatiable desire to understand life patterns, an understanding that in addition to providing an ideal intellectual exercise also provides a personal emotional experience. Thus stories offers a platform through which we can reach out to people, and connect with them emotionally. It is therefore imperative that we understand the various forms and occasions that we use stories, the objectives we want to achieve, and the means we employ in our quest for achieving the said objective. The primary motive of a story is to capture a moment or event and then immortalize it. This is how information regarding various cultures and occurrences that took place way before the advent of writing passed down through generations, until this day we are able to either read them in books, or listen to people narrate them. These stories, whether we hear them or read them, have several aspects that tend to remain unchanged over time. For instance, a good number of stories we hear or read focus on human beings, the people. Be it ancient tales or modern stories delivered in a setting such as in an organization, or a story focusing on the environment or of the times before humans came to be, the central focus remains the people, in the form of characters at play, and by extension, the audience. All stories maintain this focus on the people in order to remain relevant, attract the listener or the readers’ attention, and thus pass the information, which as aforementioned, could b e to educate, or just to preserve facts and ideas about the community. Stories also stir up emotions. The preservation of an event or occurrence

Human resource management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Human resource management - Essay Example a brief introduction provides an overall view on the business model that Banco has adopted. The discussion then goes on to focus on the Human Resource Management processes adopted and their relevance to the business context. The current role of a centralised HR operation is examined and suggestions are provided to alter it and increase its suitability to the need of the business. The major issues relate to the direct application of the HR organisation, policies and procedures as used in the banking sector without considering the distinct features of call centre management. In conclusion it is pointed out that the bank has used a ‘one size fits all’ approach when the need was to understand the very distinct demands of call centre operations. It is recommended that the bank review the organisation of HR services for the call centre to facilitate its value-addition to the business. Context and Problem Key characteristics The call centre sector has been growing at a fast rat e as an increasing number of companies seek to gain a competitive advantage of outsourcing task-based jobs. Call centres utilize sophisticated technology to provide better service to an increasingly demanding client base. The sector allows companies to provide 24-hour service to a global market. Call centre sector may be set up as a shared service to offer specialized routine services to a larger corporate or to the customer base. The sector is an outcome of organizations to provide superior service to compete effectively. Banco, a mid-sized retail bank has set up a call centre to counter competitive offerings by providing 24-hour service to and improve service levels at reduced cost. The bank has faced the challenge of coming up to speed on the technological demands of this business. Banco has chosen to manage the call centre centrally and opted to use resources that have no experience with that aspect of the business. Banco Call Centre is located in a high employment and economica lly developed area with a booming service economy. Strong HR practices are required to retain the employees because of presence of external job options. The call centre has employed 35% of its staff on a part-time basis. The focus on service is demonstrated in the structure and standards set by the call centre. The call centre has a local team to decide policy issues comprising section heads and a centre manager with no experience in call centre operations. HR policy and procedures are centrally determined by Banco and are considered inappropriate to call centre requirements. The environment in which Banco is competing involves the presence of an increasingly technology-savvy customer who is aware of the competitive offerings in the banking sector and will quickly switch to the offer of better quality, speed of service and accuracy. Service quality is the differentiator in the business and is determined by the availability of sophisticated technology and mature processes. Competitor banks have created a gap by

The Value Of Marriage English Literature Essay

The Value Of Marriage English Literature Essay Marriage has undergone a gradual transition from a custom to a legal state since 1800s. In 1800s, women were completely subordinated to their husbands. Their gender role was limited in their house, and they had to satisfy husbands needs. Their days were very tiring. Their life was very rough; they basically had no rights at this time in history. Jane Austen was a good novelist in that era. Austen lived in a time when marriage was the only way out for some women, or they would be forced to become a governess and lose their independence. Jane Austen was a major English novelist, whose brilliantly witty, elegantly structured satirical fiction marks the transition in English literature from 18th century neo-classicism to 20th century romanticism. Her novels, which were like complains about womens right, changed the idea and value of marriage forever. In 18th century, the value of marriage was limited to husband desires. Women were the property of men, and marriage was their only way of h aving a recognized position in society, but now, value of marriage is commitment between marriage partners in equal condition, and we have to protect it. In 1800s, women did not have independent life and Jane Austen revealed the bad condition of women and changed the vision of society. During this time in history, married women could not own property in their own right, and were, indeed, themselves the property of their husbands. Many of the womens job included raising children, prepare food, make clothing, and take care of things around the house. Their main duty was to satisfy their husbands needs. At that time, Jane Austen was one of the most famous authors who reflected the horrible condition of womens marriage in her novels. As Hannah Eberle mentioned in her article How Jane Austen Uses Marriage to Get What She Wants that Austen voices her concerns about 18th century gender roles throughout her novels (Eberle) Her novels center on the lives of young women in middle class Regency England. She looked at womens life, and revealed the slavery life of women in her novels. For example, when Barbara W. Swords confirms in her article Wom ans Place in Jane Austens England that In Jane Austens novels, as well, we may find that marriage is the only real choice to insure a womans place, her happiness, and her successful future,(W. Sword) it becomes clear that Jane Austen saw womens slavery life, and understood the hopes and fears of women who had to rely on marriage and family connections to provide them with a home and means to live. Moreover, Jane Austen was particularly interested in the changing attitudes towards marriage among these young people. As a result, she created different characters and different kind of romances and marriages in her novels to introduce the real value of marriage to young people; Austens model of marriage was reflected in her stories and characters; as Barbara W. Swords confirms that The happy marriages with which Jane Austens novels conclude correspond, indeed, to these new models of proper marriage: Catherine and Henry; Marianne and Colonel Brandon, Elinor and Edward; Elizabeth and Darcy ; Fanny and Edmund; Emma and Mr. Knightley; and Anne and Captain Wentworth. In each marriage, love, esteem, compatibility and mutuality, capability and respect and equality are essentials to be discovered during courtship and strengthened throughout life. (W. Sword) In my opinion, the literature and novels of Jane Austen built a foundation from which modern text and modern value of marriage were made. People studied Austens novels, and became familiar with the new values of a successful marriage. This is a very important event because at that time the value of marriage was only mens desire, but Austens novels changed the situation and became the main foundation of a transition toward a better life in 21th century. Now that were in 21th century, the gender role of women and the value of marriage have been changed. Married women can own property in their own right, and are not themselves the property of their husbands. Women may have independent life, and they have the right to choose their own husband. They have equal rights with men. Moreover, they are not limited in their house works and taking care of children at home. They can work outside of the house, and marriage in not their only way of having a recognized position in society any more. As a result, the value of marriage has been changed. If we look at Ted Olsons interview with CNN reporter, we may understand how much the value of marriage has been changed since 18th century, and what the value of marriage means in The United States of America. Ted Olson, Who is the former US solicitor general, confirms that Marriage is a conservative value. Equality is a conservative valueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.equality and independenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and peopl e that love one another that wish to form a stable bon a part of our economy, part of our community. That should be a conservative value. (Olson) As a result, equality and independence are two key factors of the value of marriage today. Women and men have equal rights. There is no obligation and stress at all, and husband and wife have kind relationship. Along with this new idea, there is one more issue. If we take a closer look at the value of marriage today, we may find that because of bad economy, the value of marriage has been changed by financial problems and economy has had profound impact on the value of marriage. As, Frey Bruno S. explains in his book Happinessa revolution in economics that In marriage, people engage in a long-term relationship with a strong commitment to a mutually rewarding exchange. The spouse expects some benefits from the partners expressed love, gratitude and recognition, as well as from security and material rewards. This is summarized in the protecti on perspective of marriage.(Bruno S. 1) In other word, along with equality and independence, the value of marriage is affected by financial and economic success in our life. Good job and good financial situation are essentials of a good marriage. In 21th century, equality, independence and financial success are three major elements which define the value of marriage. After this long effort, we have to protect our achievements. There is a dangerous concept called Arranged marriage which may destroys all our efforts today. Arranged marriages are marriages in which family members take a significant role in bringing a couple together. Relatives, particularly parents, often take the initiative to find, evaluate, and approve potential spouses for their children. In some cases, the couple may marry while still relative strangers under the expectation that they will develop a loving relationship over time. These marriages are in contrast to so-called love marriages, in which a couple is drawn together by mutual attraction and makes the decision to marry on their own. While often associated with cultures in the Middle East, Africa, and India, these arrangements are not unknown in Western countries, particularly among immigrant populations. I studied and found out that religious and cultural believes are two major reasons for an Arranged marriage For examp le, if we take a look at Jocelyn Voos article Arranged marriage gets high-tech twist, he confirms that When it was time for Sabiha Ansari to get married, her parents flew her to India. She met her husband-to-be for less than 20 minutes, with family, then was asked whether she liked him. (Voo) There are many countries like India that do not believe in modern value of marriage accepted in democratic countries, and an Arranged marriage, which is a traditional believe, is more important for them than modern value of marriage. In this report, Sabiha Ansaris father and mother ignored their daughters opinion and followed their own tradition. As we can see that Saviha explains that was really hard for her, and she kind of wanted to have some time alone with him to talk to him, or even on the phone. There is an important point. India is not the only country which does not believe in modern value of marriage. There are many more painful events happened in Islamic countries which ignores the v alue of marriage because of religion believe. For example, Samuel Burke explains in his article 11-year-old Girl Married to 40-year-old Man. that Before their wedding ceremony begins in rural Afghanistan, a 40-year-old man sits to be photographed with his 11-year-old bride. The girl tells the photographer that she is sad to be engaged because she had hoped to become a teacher.(Burke) forcing a 11 years old girls to marry with a 40 years old man when she wanted to become a teacher, is a very painful condition. I was born in Iran, which is an Islamic country, and I can feel her pain because the age of girls marriage in Iran was nigh years old. Jane Austen helped us to understand the womens condition in 18th century, but Arranged marriage is another form of womens slavery which is against the modern value of marriage at all. We have to be careful not to allow these counties and traditions to pain teenage girls to marry with old people and destroy the real value of marriage which has be en made after a long effort. In conclusion, in 18th century, the value of marriage was limited to husband desires. Women were as the property of men, they did not have any right to complain. Marriage was their only way of having a recognized position in society, the man was absolute power, but Jane Austen reflected that womens bad situation in her novels, and changed the rules. After that, people started to study Austens novels, and the value of marriage was changed. Today, men and women have equal rights, and the value of marriage is based on equality and independence of men and women, and we have to protect this achievement from those countries which does not believe in these concepts. In my opinion the value of marriage is commitment between marriage partners in equal condition, and the equal commitment is the only way which will protect our families in future life. .

Criminology Class Notes

Criminology – Class Notes for Chapters 1 through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 – Crime and Criminology What is Criminology? An academic discipline that uses scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior. What Do Criminologists Do? Criminal Statistics/Crime Measurement involves calculating the amount and trends of criminal activity and focuses on creating valid and reliable measures of criminal behavior. This is done by an analysis of the activities of police and court agencies.Measuring criminal activity not reported to the police by victims. Identifying the victims of crime. Developing Theories of Crime Causation Criminological orientations: Psychological – crime as a function of personality, development, social learning, or cognition (understanding). Biological – antisocial behavior as a function of biochemical, genetic, and neurological factors. Sociological – criminal behavior as a product of social forces including neighborhood conditions, poverty, socialization, and group interaction. Criminologists may use innovative methods to test theory.For example, the use of magnetic resonance imaging to assess the brain function of male batterers. The true cause of crime is still problematic – given similar conditions, why do some people choose crime while others do not? Understanding and Describing Criminal Behavior – Research of Specific Criminal Types and Crime Patterns 50 years ago, researchers focused on perceived major crimes including rape, murder, and burglary. Today, some researchers focus on crimes including stalking, cyber crime, terrorism, and hate crimes. Example: Terrorism and the terrorist personality a.Mental illness is not a critical factor in explaining terrorist behavior, most terrorists are not â€Å"psychopaths. † b. There is no â€Å"terrorist personality. † c. Histories of childhood abuse/trauma and themes of perceived injus tice and humiliation are often prominent in terrorist biographies but do not help to explain terrorism. Penology: Punishment, Sanctions, and Corrections Penology is concerned with the correction and sentencing of known criminal offenders. While some criminologists may advocate rehabilitation, others may advocate capital punishment and mandatory sentences.Criminologists as a whole are concerned with evaluating the effectiveness and impact of crime control programs. Victimology Criminologists who study victimization have found that criminals are at greater risk for victimization than non-criminals. Additionally, victims may be engaging in high-risk behavior, such as crime, which increases their victimization. A History of Criminology The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively recent development. During the Middle Ages (1200-1600) people who violated social and religious norms were viewed as being witches or possessed by demons.Torture was used to extract confessions , and criminals received harsh penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Cesare Beccaria developed a theory that human behavior is driven by a choice between the amount of pleasure gained over the amount of pain or punishment experienced. He argued that in order to reduce or stop criminal behavior, the punishment should be swift, certain, and severe. This theory of â€Å"free will† became known as the classical theory.Classical criminology – the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions. Positivist Criminological Theory – holds that most criminal behavior is the result of social, psychological, and even biological influences. Positivism is the branch of social science that uses the scientific m ethod of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic factors.Biological Determinism Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) is considered the â€Å"father of criminology. † Lombroso's theory of anthropological criminology essentially stated that criminality was inherited, and that someone â€Å"born criminal† could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombroso's strict biological determinism is no longer taken seriously. Biosocial theory – Criminologists have recently linked crime and biological traits, and have looked at the link between physical and social traits and their influence on behavior (which also take into account social and environmental conditions).Sociological Criminology – Variables such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status and ethnicity have been shown to have been shown to have a significant relationship with certain categories and patt erns of crime. The foundations of sociological criminology can be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of social statistics to investigate the influence of social factors on the propensity to commit crime. These factors include age, sex, season, climate, population composition, and poverty.According to Durkheim, crime is normal, inevitable, and is useful and occasionally even healthful for society (as it can pave the way for social change). Drawing from Durkheim, sociologists have examined the ways that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can produce deviance (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The Chicago School Criminologists from the University of Chicago including Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces operating in urban areas create a crime-promoting environment; crime is a social phenomenon.This challenged t he widely held belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impaired or morally inferior. These criminologists felt that crime could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reckless hypothesized that crime occurs when children develop an inadequate self-image, rendering them incapable of controlling their misbehavior. Socialization Views Research during the 1930s and 1940s linked criminal behavior to the quality of an individual's relationship to important social processes, including education, family life, and peer relations.Edwin Sutherland, the preeminent American criminologist, noted that people learn criminal attitudes from older, more experienced offenders. Conflict theory – the view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto – a description of oppressive labor conditions prevalent during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx felt that the character of every society is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic system controls all aspects of human life.Exploitation of the working class would eventually lead to class conflict and the end of the capitalist system. The social upheaval of the 1960s prompted criminologists to analyze the social conditions in the United States that promoted class conflict and crime. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and crime. Is crime a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology Delinquency research in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that focused on the early onset of delinquency as an indication of a criminal career.The most important factors related to persistent offending was family relations. Children with low intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a meso morph physique (a human physical type that is marked by greater than average muscular development) were most likely to become persistent offenders. Contemporary Criminology Classical theory had evolved into Rational Choice Theory – the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.Lombrosian biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory views. Trait theory – the view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has transformed into Social Structure Theory – the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime. Social Process Theory – the view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. Social process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization.Many criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks' pioneering research has influenced a new generation of developmental theorists. Deviant or Criminal? How Criminologists Define Crime Deviance is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or dangerous; it will then be specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal law. Crime and deviance are often confused. The shifting definition of deviant behavior is closely associated with our concepts of crime.For example, are drawings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? Individuals, institutions, or government agencies may mount a campaign aimed at convincing the public and lawmakers that what is considered a deviant behavior is actually dangerous and must be criminalized. An example is Harry Anslinger's â€Å"moral crusade,† in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The Concept of Crime Criminologists align themselves with one of several schools of thought regarding what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to engage in criminality. The Consensus View of CrimeCrimes are behaviors that all elements of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal law reflects the values, beliefs, and opinions of society's mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of Crime This theory depicts society as a collection of diverse groups that are in constant and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, assert political power to use the law and criminal justice system to advance their economic and social positions.Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to protect the haves from the have-nots. The poor go to prison, and the wealthy receive lenient sente nces for even the most serious breaches of law. The Interactionist View of Crime The definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to impose their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the population. Criminals are individuals that society labels as outcasts or deviants because they have violated social rules.Crimes are outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of â€Å"moral crusaders,† and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. Crime and the Criminal Law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 years. Code of Hammurabi — Law code issued during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon (1780 BCE [Before our Common Era]). It called for compensation (restitution) for a robbery victim if the thief was not caught.This was thought to be fair because the state failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for restitution, the code reduced feuds and vengeance between families. Since this time, restitution has been in all criminal codes. Mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings but is also a basis for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and adultery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into existence during the reign of English King Henry II (1154-1189), when royal judges began to publish their decisions in local cases.A fixed body of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a new rule was successfully applied in a number of different cases, it would become a precedent. Precedents would then be commonly applied in all similar cases – hence the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as either mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, rape, or assault that are considered wrong in themselves, based on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government.There is often a lack of consensus about whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be illegal. People’s views of the seriousness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and victimization experience. We may also categorize crimes as felonies (serious offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). Social Goals of Contemporary Criminal Law Enforcing social control Discouraging revenge Expressing public opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Creating equityMaintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is constantly evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by highly publicized cases that generate fear and concer n. Criminal law may change due to shifts in culture and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. Supreme Court held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a private residence were unconstitutional because they violated the due process rights of citizens because of their sexual orientation.Ethical Issues in Criminology – What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite ethical dilemma is presented when the data one collects is in fundamental opposition to the values and objectives of his or her funding agency. This is becoming an increasingly important ethical issue to consider as more criminological research projects are being funded by various external sources ranging from private enterprises to government initiatives.When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are faced with the decision of whether to censor certain information to protect the mission of their funding agency, or alternatively to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private Corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to compare the recidivism rates of offenders housed in state funded versus privately funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists have focused on the poor and minorities while ignoring groups including middle-class white-collar crime and organized crime.Methods used in conducting research must ensure that: The subjects are randomly selected and are fully informed about the purpose of the research. The information must remain confidential, and the sources of information must be protected. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In order to better understand the workings and motivations of a criminal gang, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they commit crime? Should the criminologist report observed criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize?Chapter 2- The Nature and Extent of Crime What is the primary sources of crime data? The FBI's Uniformed Crime Reporting (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR Program publishes an annual document containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on arrests received on a voluntary basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. Part I crimes – the most serious – murder and non-negligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny; arson; motor vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accurate and valid UCR statisticPart II crimes – all less serious crimes, including other assaults; forgery and counterfeiting; fraud; embezzlement; stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing); vandalism; weapons (carry, possessing, etc. ); prostitution; sex offenses; drug abuse violations; gambling; offenses against the family an d children; driving under the influence; liquor laws; drunkenness; disorderly conduct; vagrancy; all other offenses (except traffic). Unfounded or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is reported whether or not an arrest is made.Cleared crimes are also reported – cleared via an arrest, charging, and being turned over for prosecution; or cleared by exceptional means (ex. , suspect left the country). Validity of the UCR The UCR's accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not reported to police. Victims may consider the crime unimportant. Victims may not trust the police. Victims may not have property insurance. Victims fear reprisals. Victims may be involved in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics.It is collected in a careful and systematic way. Measurement of year to year change accurate because any problems are stable over time. The Nati onal Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is the result of efforts to provide a more comprehensive and detailed UCR; the NIBRS collects additional data on each reported crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by means of survey research. People are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization.The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS sample size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households stay in the sample for three years with new households rotated into the sample on an ongoing basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to provide detailed information on frequency and nature of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and simple assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft.Victim information provided in the NCVS includes age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, income, and education level. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences. Validity of the NCVS It is a more complete picture of the nation's crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. There may be an overreporting due to victims' misinterpretation of events. There may be underreporting due to victims' embarrassment, fear, or forgetfulness.The future of the NCVS Its effectiveness has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection have been altered. Multiple years of data are now combined in order to comment on change over time – this is less desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologi sts may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and lifetime participation in criminal activity. Most self-report surveys focus on juvenile delinquency and youth crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to admit illegal acts is unreasonable.Some people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core chronic offenders who may be institutionalized. â€Å"Monitoring the Future Survey† was an effort to improving the reliability of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the Future survey, conducted by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students across the U. S. It has shown that a surprising number of â€Å"typical teenagers† reported involvement in serious criminal behavior.If accurate, the MTF survey data indicate a much greater crime problem th an the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR – For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. Much criminological research is based on the UCR. NCVS – Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It relies on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US population, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and drug abuseSelf-report surveys – can provide information on personal characteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and drug abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860: gradual increase in the crime rate, especially violent crime Post-Civil War: Crime rate increased significantly for 15 years. 1880-WWI: Reported crimes decreased. Steady decline until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime wave was recorded. 1930 – 1960: Crime rates increased gradually. The homicide rate peaked around 1930. 1970s: The homicide rate sharply increased. Trends in Officially Recorded Crime 980-1990: Sharp increase in rates of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rates (adult homicide rates fell). Since 1990: Numbers of crime in decline. There has been a significant drop in UCR violent crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The violence rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime rates have also declined – a 10% decline in past decade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 – mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a peak of 10. 2 per 100,000 in 1980. 1980-1991: Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008: Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the overall crime rate is in remission. Trends in Victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data indicate that victimizations have declined significantly during the past 30 years. 1973: 44 mill ion victimizations Today: 23 million victimizations What the Future Holds Future crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who will enter their crime prone years. Future crime rates may also be offset by the aging of the population – large number of senior citizens. Technological and social factors may shape the direction of the crime rate.Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. Some argue that the narcissistic youth culture that stresses materialism is being replaced by more moralistic cultural values that may moderate potential crime rate growth. It is too early to predict if the overall downward trend in crime rates will continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The Ecology of Crime Day, season and climate – Most reported crimes occur during the warm summer months of July and August. Exceptions: Murders and robberies occur frequently in December and January.Crime rates are higher on the first day of the month. Temperature – crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 degrees when it may be too hot for any physical exertion. Some criminologists believe that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as domestic violence to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline after temperatures rise to an extremely high level. Extreme temperatures cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones.Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban areas have the highest violence rates. Rural areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. Use of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms; most are handguns. Criminals of all races/ethni cities are equally likely to use firearms in violent crimes. Ongoing debate over gun controlCriminologists favoring gun control: The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of lethal violence they cause is the single most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists opposed to gun control: Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is generally a lower-class phenomenon. Instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are unable to obtain desired goods and services via conventional means and may resort to illegal activities to obtain them.Expressive crimes: Those living in poverty engage in disproportionate amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. Alcohol and drug use is common in impoverished areas and helps to fuel violent crime. UCR data indicate crim e rates in inner-city, high-poverty areas are higher than those in suburban or wealthy areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As alternative explanation is that the relationship between official crime nd social class is a function of law enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes commit crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. Less serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disorder are associated with the most serious violent crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16.The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a disproportionate rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for less than 10% of crime arrests. The elderly comprise 12 % of the population but less than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime People commit less crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then declines rapidly thereafter. Adults develop the ability to delay gratification, start wanting to take responsibility for their behavior, and adhere to conventional norms.Research: People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biology Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) play a role in aggression. Dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, dopamine increases while serotonin is reduced. Change in brain chemistry parallels the aging out process. Gender and Crime Male crime rates are much higher than female crime rates. The male-female arrest ratio is almost four males to one female.Murder arrests: Eight males to one female Self-report data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by official data. Over the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9%; female arrest rates have increased by 9%. Increased female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion: During the slowing of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombroso's masculinity hypothesis – a few â€Å"masculine† females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women committed.These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no longer taken seriously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, how ever. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences Superior verbal ability may allow girls and women to talk rather than fight. Social/Political Differences Liberal feminist theory – female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society.Lower female crime rates explained by women's â€Å"second-class† economic and social positions. Female and male crime rates would converge as women's social roles change and became more like men's. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime Minority group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amount of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may refl ect true racial differences in the crime rate.Data may reflect bias in the justice process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find little evidence of racial disparity in crimes committed. The delinquent behavior of black and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential selection process by police. Critics charge police officers routinely use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police discretion and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however.Racism and discrimination Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society – the black family torn apart and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of daily life in the black community. It undermines confidence in the justice system and faith in social and politi cal institutions. Racial threat theory – As the percentage of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. Significant research exists to support that the justice system may be racially biased.Black and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in detention pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. Economic and social disparity Racial and ethnic minorities are often forced to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic deprivation than the white majority. Black youths are forced to attend essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools.Family dissolution Family dissolution is tied to low employment rates among black mal es, leading to strained marriages. Increased risk of early death by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families result in compromised social control. Divorce and separation rates are significantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. Chronic Offenders/Criminal Careers A small group of career or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses.Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin's 1972 study, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort The â€Å"Chronic 6%† – boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for six percent of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do little to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare – 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early onset – Children who ha ve been exposed to a variety of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at risk to repeat offending.Factors characterizing the chronic offender: problems in the home and school; getting arrested before age 15; low intellectual development; and parental drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is unlikely that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy.Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. Three strikes laws – rules for repeat offenders that require long sentences without parole for conviction of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offenders. Three fe lony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the requirement that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences before release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. This policy can increase imprisonment costs.DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you answer honestly if participating in a national crime survey asking about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? Why or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and VictimizationThe Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. Vi ctimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in risky activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less appealing to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimization’s Toll on Society NCVS: 23 million victimizations per year Costs of victimization: Damaged property; pain and suffering; involvement of criminal justice system; medical costs, lost wages; reduced quality of life, fearTotal loss related to criminal victimization: $450 billion annually; $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault: $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals suffering a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially painful for rape victims. Negative reac tions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends.Negative reactions from either source reinforces uncertainty about whether the victim's experience qualifies as rape. Sympathetic and responsive support help rape victims maintain confidence and results in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term Stress Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. Rape victims are particularly susceptible to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits.Many run away to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood – may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and homelessness as adults. Homeless wome n are likely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a history of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psychological problems. Abusive spouses are likely to abuse their victims psychologically.Fear Victims fear they will be re-victimized. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their homes will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been victimized. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. Antisocial Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of VictimizationLocation – Violent crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or e arly evening. Time – Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault): after 6:00 p. m. Less serious violent crimes (unarmed robberies): during the daytime Neighborhood characteristics – Central city: higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder: significantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, before, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make attractive targets. Ages 12-18: 1. 7 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school.Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. Twenty-two percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victim’s Household Household vulnerability Most vulnerable: African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable: Non-African American, No rtheast Ownership: Rental homes more so than owned homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization – Population movement from urban to suburban and rural; family size has been reduced.Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males are more likely to be victims of violent crime. Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. Intimate partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Elderly – vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in long-term care facilities. Social statusAcross all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be tar gets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Americans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. Marital status Never-married individuals are victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and lifestyle. Repeat victimizationPersons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. Target vulnerability – Victim's physical weakness or psychological distress makes them easy targets. Target gratifiability – Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism – Victim's characteristics arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger; females by a friend , acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial.Over half of all nonfatal personal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Women are more likely than men to be robbed by a friend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory – the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. Active precipitation – occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.Passive precipitation – occurs when victims exhibit some personal characteristic than unknowingly threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity – male and female victims score high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic; they may lack self-control; they may have a physical ra ther than mental orientation; they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong association between victimization risk and impulsive personality. Lifestyle theories – views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders.Victimization is increased by associating with young men, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rural areas. Crime is not a random occurrence; rather, a function of the victim's lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, running away, getting involved in crime. Males' lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females' lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a male's peer group, the lower their chances of victimization.The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being shot/killed. Most at risk of homicide: kids who have se rved time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying and recreational drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs – increases risk of victimization for males and females. Carrying a weapon – males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%).Deviant place theory – the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for determining victimization. Deviant places – Poor, densely populated, highly transient nei ghborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side.They are home to â€Å"demoralized kinds of people† who are easy targets: addicts, homeless, elderly poor. Safety precautions Effect of safety precautions is less pronounced in poor areas. The presence of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine Activities Theory – the view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors: the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders. Suitable targets – objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available.Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a unique set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juvenile homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods – as costs decline, so to do burglary rates.Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Suggested a balance be achieved between recognizing victim's rights and the defendant's due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act – Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal criminal cases Greater protection for witnesses More stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984: Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act Authorized federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projectsVictim Service Programs Victim-witness assistance programs – 2,000 across the U. S. Victim Compensat ion Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, counseling, burial expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) – money derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $300 million per year. Victim AdvocatesCounselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research: rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to file police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates – prepare victims and witnesses re: the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and effects at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable effect. Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs) Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs handling 16,000 cases per year Designed for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims’ Rights Every state has a Victims' Bill of Rights: To be notified of proceedings and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is dismissed or plea agreement entered To a speedy trialTo keep the victim's contact information confidential Sex offender registration laws have been adopted at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the News Following a felony assault conviction, Chris Brown was sentenced to 5 yearsâ€℠¢ probation and 180 days of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police horse stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally, Brown must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, Brown had completed 581 hours of community service.In January 2011, Brown completed mandated domestic violence counseling. In March 2011, Brown picked up a chair and smashed a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio in Manhattan following an interview in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Brown's stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to jail before age 15 for killing his stepdad over what he'd done to her:  Ã¢â‚¬Å" I just want you to know that I love you.But  I’m gonna take a baseball b at one day while you at work, and I’m gonna kill him. † His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. The bullet missed his brain but went straight through his eyes, leaving him permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence: â€Å"When you’re blind, your senses are heightened, like your smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom†¦.He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,  Ã¢â‚¬ËœI’m just gonna go crazy on him one day†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ I hate him to this day. † Rihanna's Upbringing Rihanna's childhood was marred by her father's struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents' marital problems—they divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the author's assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment?Why or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the â€Å"college lifestyle? † How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society places more blame on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory: Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and deterrence.The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are impossible in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes severity. However, as the chapter notes, severity is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) – the premise that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefits of an illegal act.Its roots are in the classical school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approach was replaced by positivist criminology that focused on internal and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals behave in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and thrill of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person.Evaluating the Risk s of Crime Personal factors – money, revenge, thrills Situational factors – target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may feel that they stand a good chance of being caught and punished. They fear the consequences of punishment; they risk losing the respect of peers, their reputation may be damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both Offense and Offender-SpecificOffense-specific – the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular crimes. Offense-specific factors include: Evaluating the target yield Probability of security devices Police patrol effectiveness Availability of a getaway car Ease of selling stolen merchandise Presence of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs Escape routes Entry points and exi ts Offender-specific – the idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include: Possession of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuablesExistence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected apprehension and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts Physical ability Offender's Economic Need/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to supplement their income via prostitution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control.Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detectio n. Women are drawn into dealing drugs learn the trade in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals carefully choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the desirability of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 9:00 and 11:00 a. m. nd in the afternoon when parents are working or transporting children to and from school. Is Crime Rational? Target selection seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they blend in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. Can Vio lence Be Rational? Violent criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability.Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have knowledge of escape routes – referred to as â€Å"awareness space. † That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be surrounded by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with â€Å"dirty hands,† such as drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People Commit Crime? â€Å"Edgework† – Crime is a more attractive alternative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the adrenaline rush that comes from the exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill. The Seduction of CrimeKatz: There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competence †“ â€Å"sneaky thrills† A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the opportunity to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime prevention – a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if: Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing opportunity. Defensible space – the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newman's defensible space – crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime Prevention Strategies I ncrease the effort needed to commit crime Unbreakable glass on storefrontsLocking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owner's photo on credit cards Security devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers – people who serve as guardians of property or people Reduce the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings Tracking systems Induce guilt: increase shame Publishing â€Å"John lists† Reduce provocation Earlier closing times for bars and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools Remove excuses Electronic roadside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crime PreventionHidden Benefits Diffusion – an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement – an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement â₠¬â€œ an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or redirect offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction – an effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions.Replacement – an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice. General deterrence – a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. Certainty of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline.Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. R esearch indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. Police and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the street should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and DeterrenceThe faster punishment is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will serve as a deterrent. Deterrent effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution: over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed; the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to h ave a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General Deterrence Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment.Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a person's ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective – only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes committed. â€Å"Deterrability† Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of formal sanctions is irrelevant to high-risk offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law.Some crimes are more deterrable than others – minor offenses easier to deter; serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence – the view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut evidence that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect: when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. Long-term effect: effect of arrest quickly decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence.Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested within three years of their release from prison. Incarceration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest is not reduced. The harshest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in defiance rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote.Experie ncing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect – the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their prime crime years, it will reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year.Some experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that incapacitating criminals will deter them from future criminality. Their additional views: Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri